The evolution of European cranial morphology: From the Upper Paleolithic to the Late Eneolithic steppe invasions

Abstract The purpose of this work was a comprehensive overview of the development of cranial morphology in prehistoric Europe, spanning the period from the Upper Paleolithic to the genetic turnovers associated with the Indo-European migrations from the East European steppes (~ 2000 cal. BC). A total of 103 prehistoric samples with > 3900 male skulls were divided into six periods and statistically compared using 22 cranial values (11 raw craniometric measurements and 11 indices). This analysis shows that the Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods were characterized by a predominance of robust, broad-faced morphology that was changing only slowly over time. As late as after the onset of the Neolithic (6000 cal. BC) did morphological diversity increase in the form of the more gracile, narrow-faced crania of Anatolian farmers. The sharp contrast between these two morphotypes persisted throughout the Neolithic and Eneolithic (6000–3000 cal. BC), when the autochthonous European populations were gradually pushed into the peripheral regions of Northern and Eastern Europe. The most significant changes in the European cranial form occurred between 3000–2000 cal. BC, when East European steppe pastoralists stemming from the Jamnaja culture genetically overwhelmed farming groups in the rest of the continent. As a result of subsequent admixture and strong founder events, two very distinct, morphologically antagonistic populations emerged: The ultradolichocephalic associated with the Corded Ware culture and the brachycephalic associated with the Bell Beaker culture. In general, the ancient European morphologies predating 2000 cal. BC only partially overlap with the recent populations of Europe and are more diverse, which indicates a lack of continuity.