Molecular Subtypes and Biomarker-based Detection of Breast Cancer: Challenges and Future Perspectives

Breast cancer remains a serious global health challenge, being the leading cause of cancer-related death in women. Its prevalence is still rising despite improvements in diagnostic techniques and awareness efforts. However, disparity exists due to its complex molecular heterogeneity and limited access to advanced diagnostics. Genetic and epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation, histone modification, non-coding RNAs, alterations in tumor suppressor genes, immune system interactions, and hormonal and growth factor signaling pathways contribute to breast cancer pathogenesis. Racial discrimination and socioeconomic determinants of health can also affect prognosis, even though biological differences by ethnicity may be partially responsible for the observed discrepancies. This review highlights the continued challenges and opportunities in enhancing the prognosis of breast cancer worldwide, in addition to bringing into light the molecular mechanisms, molecular subtypes, and innovative approaches to early detection and treatment of breast cancer.