Advancing Australia’s lithium and rare earth value chain: recent trends and innovations in functionalised adsorbents and their perspective applications for circular economy

As the global shift toward a net-zero future accelerates and the demand for clean energy intensifies, lithium and rare earth elements (REEs) have become essential alternatives to fossil fuels in clean energy transition. Australia, with its substantial reserves of spodumene and REEs, is leading this green energy transition. However, geopolitical uncertainties pose severe risks to the sustainable supply of these critical elements in the world market. To mitigate these supply risks, a key industrial strategy involves enhancing the recycling of these vital materials from end-of-life products, referred to as e-waste (E-waste). Ensuring a sustainable supply and efficient processing of lithium and REEs is crucial for advancing global decarbonisation efforts. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the lithium and REE value chains within the Australian context, starting with a global perspective on reserves and the potential synergies with E-waste. Further, it examines the challenges and advancements in separation and purification technologies, with a focus on adsorption techniques. Highlighting the significance of adsorption selectivity, this review examines how the functionalised adsorbents derived from novel design and modification strategies can improve the recovery of critical materials from diverse feedstocks. By leveraging mining by-products as precursors, it presents a Circular Economy approach to materials development, outlining key strategies and future research directions. These waste-to-value innovations are demonstrated through critical applications in resource recovery from industrial effluents and brines, as well as in environmental remediation. Emphasising both innovation and sustainable application, this review underscores the importance of continued integration of these strategies to meet global resource demands and support a cost-effective, sustainable energy future.