Toxic Metals in Indian Waters: A Systematic Assessment of Lead and Cadmium Contamination and Associated Health Hazards

Water is fundamental to life and essential for India's economic and ecological stability, supporting agriculture, industry, and domestic needs. However, the quality of India's vital water resources, particularly rivers and groundwater, is increasingly threatened by heavy metal contamination. Lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) are heavy metals introduced through anthropogenic activities and natural processes that pose significant risks to human health and environmental integrity. This study analyzes the lead and cadmium concentration from Indian waters through recent scientific studies with the use of the PRISMA system, 15 scientific articles were assessed and narrowed down to 10 articles after applying the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The findings highlight lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in Indian water samples, revealing significant variations. Hyderabad showed pre-monsoon Pb up to 1207 μg/L and Cd up to 0.42 μg/L. Uttara Kannada exhibited significant contamination, with pre-monsoon Pb up to 0.29 mg/L and Cd up to 8.99 mg/L, exceeding safe limits (HQ > 1). Singrauli groundwater had Pb up to 317 μg/L and Cd up to 108 μg/L, also with HQ > 1. The scientific studies show that during seasonal sampling, Pb and Cd have high concentrations compared to non-seasonal sampling. These findings highlight the need for targeted monitoring and mitigation and provide background and reference to future research.