Distance matters: Quantifying the influence of urban land use change and development proximity on land surface temperature in Sari, Iran

• LST in Sari City rose from 50.98 °C (2013) to 53.94 °C (2023), driven by urban expansion and vegetation loss, intensifying heat islands. • Near transportation, LST cools (coefficient = -0.17, p < 0.001), while distance from gardens raises temperatures. • Parks lower LST within 10–50 m, highlighting the need for strategic green spacing to combat heat islands. The rapid expansion of urban areas has led to significant land use changes, affecting local climate systems, particularly through an increase in Land Surface Temperature. This study investigates the spatio-temporal dynamics of Urban Land Use Changes, and its impact on temperature patterns, using Landsat imagry and advanced GIS techniques to analyze changes in LST over 10 years in Sari, Iran. The results indicate 3 °C increase in average LST over 10 years, with maximum temperatures rising from 53 °C to 56 °C. A clear gradient in LST was observed, with areas closer to the spots with land use change experiencing more temperature increase in the temperature. The further distance to transportation infrastructure showed the strongest cooling effect, with proximity reducing LST significantly. Conversely, increased distance to gardens and green infrastructure were associated with higher LST. These findings emphasize the critical role of land use transformation in mitigating or worsening urban surface tempreature.