A Survey of Energy Consumption Models for Electric Vehicles: From Simulation to Real-World Applications

Electric vehicles (EVs) are essential to low-carbon mobility. For optimal performance, infrastructure development, and energy efficiency, EV adoption requires accurate and reliable energy consumption models. This study discusses the latest EV energy consumption modelling advances, pinpointing four main aspects: vehicle components, dynamics, traffic circumstances, and environmental factors. EV energy consumption models are classified by scale (microscopic vs. macroscopic) and methodology (data-driven vs. rule-based). Microscopic models analyse driving behaviours to estimate short-term energy usage, while macroscopic models estimate trip-level energy consumption for large-scale planning. The paper also notes a shift towards data-driven models, which use machine learning and massive datasets for accuracy. Rule-based models use physical concepts and empirical formulas. Many research gaps remain despite advances. Energy models for electric buses, lorries, and industrial vehicles are needed. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) integration models need improvement to allow bidirectional energy exchange. Finally, multiscale energy models, which combine microscopic and macroscopic techniques, may improve EV energy estimation accuracy and application. This study highlights emerging trends and future research goals, emphasising scalable, intelligent, and flexible energy consumption models for EV uptake and sustainable mobility.