Exposure and reduction of lipophilic halogenated contaminants in rice

Rice, a primary food staple for over half of the global population, is susceptible to environmental pollution. The presence of lipophilic halogenated contaminants, including halogenated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (XPAHs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), brominated flame retardants (BFRs), and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), has become a growing concern due to their potential health risks and environmental impact. This review focused on the research of lipophilic halogenated contaminants in rice. We summarized the physicochemical properties, toxicity profiles, and contamination levels in rice. Moreover, the strategies for reducing lipophilic halogenated contaminant levels in rice were summarized and proposed, such as phytoremediation and improved processing methods. These findings can provide a reference for the understanding and control of lipophilic halogenated contaminants during rice growing and processing, and therefore reduce the associated risks.