Perfuming and Divine Scents in the Soteriology of Medieval Buddhism and Daoism

The olfactory sense and experience are considered a conduit between spirituality and the divine realm in Daoism. The ceremonial use of incense in Daoism (shixiang 侍香) has been explored from various theological perspectives and described by numerous liturgists. Despite its importance, several questions about the development and history of Daoist olfactory culture remain unresolved. This paper examines medieval religious dialogs concerning divine smells and smoke before and during the Tang dynasty, a period marked by the interaction and mutual influence of Daoism and Buddhism in China. I argue that medieval Daoism enhanced its soteriology by adopting the concept of vāsanā (xun 薰) from Buddhism, particularly Yogâcāra. Xuan Zang’s 玄奘 translation corpus of Vasubandhu, Cheng Weishi Lun 成唯識論, along with the treatises of two Tang Daoist liturgists Zhu Faman’s 朱法滿 and Du Guangting’s 杜光庭, reveal a shared belief that sacred smells transform the perfumed at a profound level, embedding the divine essence within them. The Yogâcāra concept of vāsanā, elucidated by Xuan Zang, was readily incorporated into Tang Daoism due to their shared soteriological interests. Tang Daoism was in the process of codifying its rituals for self-purification and collective salvation, thereby enhancing the significance of incense through its dynamic absorption of vāsanā. The olfactory practices in medieval Daoism demonstrate that East Asian medieval soteriology promoted universalism through the ritual interactions between Buddhism and Daoism.