C-Transformer: An Energy-Efficient Homogeneous DNN-Transformer/SNN-Transformer Processor for Large Language Models

In this article, we propose a new language model processor named the C-Transformer to address the external memory bottleneck of language models. It consists of three key functional blocks: 1) homogeneous deep-neural-network (DNN)–Transformer/spiking-Transformer core (HDSC) with a hybrid multiplication/accumulation unit (HMAU) to enhance hardware utilization; 2) output spike speculation unit (OSSU) to increase the energy efficiency of spike-domain processing; and 3) implicit weight generation unit (IWGU) with extended sign compression (ESC) to eliminate the external memory bottleneck. The chip is fabricated in Samsung’s 28-nm 1P8M CMOS technology and operates at a supply voltage of 0.7–1.1 V with a maximum frequency of 200 MHz and supports various tasks such as language modeling, translation, and summarization. For models like generative pre-trained transformer 2 (GPT-2), multilingual text-to-text transfer transformer (mT5), text-to-text transfer transformer (T5), and FairSeq MachineTranslation (FSMT), the C-Transformer achieves 0.21×–0.33× computation energy and 0.37×–0.41× external memory access (EMA) energy compared to the baseline. Our chip demonstrates 13.6% lower energy consumption than the previous state-of-the-art, despite having 2.1× more parameters. Moreover, it consumes 63.8% less energy with a similar parameter size. The C-Transformer can complete various language model tasks with <1 s latency, notably FSMT in 0.09 s and GPT-2 in 0.656 s. By combining DNN–Transformer and Spiking-Transformer architectures, the C-Transformer enhances computational energy efficiency, eliminates external memory bottlenecks, and enables language models such as GPT-2 to achieve state-of-the-art performance on mobile devices.