Pesticide residues in honey: Agricultural landscapes and commercial wax foundation sheets as potential routes of chronic exposure for honey bees

Pesticides pose significant threats to pollinators, and honey bees are frequently exposed through foraging and beekeeping practices. We assessed honey bee pesticide exposure by analyzing 92 pesticide residues in honey from 30 hobbyist apiaries across Massachusetts, along with store-bought honey and commercial wax foundation. For all samples, we calculated the risk of multiresidue toxicity to honey bees and assessed the role of landscape composition in predicting pesticides in local honey. Both honey and wax contained multiple pesticides, particularly neonicotinoids and piperonyl butoxide. Store-bought honey accumulated at least two times more residues than local, but did not differ significantly in toxicity. Overall, honey toxicity levels remained below thresholds of concern for bees and human consumption. Although our study had low agricultural land (∼6 %), croplands were positively correlated with pesticides in honey, while wetlands (∼ 15 %) were negatively correlated. Additionally, our study suggests that commercial wax exacerbates pesticide exposure.