How acquirable are English articles for L2 learners? Evidence from online processing and production by L1-Mandarin and L1-Croatian speakers of L2-English

Abstract English articles ( a[n] / the ) are one of the hardest features for second language (L2) learners to acquire. Theories such as the Morphological Congruency Hypothesis (MCH) predict that where articles are a unique-to-L2 feature, they will not be fully acquirable, while the Unified Competition Model (UCM) predicts full article acquisition. To examine first language (L1) transfer in the article processing/production of L1-Mandarin and L1-Croatian learners of L2-English, we conducted two studies. To shape MCH/UCM predictions, Study 1 used a forced-choice task with 28 L1-Mandarin and 27 L1-Croatian speakers testing L1 preferences for noun premodification with anaphoric definites and referential indefinites. Study 2 tested 24 advanced L1-Mandarin/L2-English and 22 L1-Croatian/L2-English learners and 24 L1-English controls on acceptability judgment, self-paced reading (SPR), and oral production tasks. Mixed-effects regression showed participants had explicit knowledge of (in)definite English articles, but only the L1-Mandarin/L2-English learners performed similarly to the L1-English on SPR for the indefinite article and had similar production accuracy. By contrast, the L1-Croatian/L2-English learners lacked sensitivity to omission of either article and had lower production accuracy. The L1-Croatian/L2-English results, in particular, support the MCH predictions that unique structures present persistent problems in comprehension and production, even at high proficiency.