The expanding use and effectiveness of nonlethal methods for mitigating wolf-cattle conflict

• Rangelands preserve biodiversity by connecting fragmented landscapes. As gray wolf ( Canis lupus ) populations expand throughout the United States, they increasingly move through rangelands, leading to conflicts with livestock. • We evaluated the efficacy of both lethal and nonlethal wolf-livestock conflict mitigation methods and found nonlethal methods achieved more significant risk reduction for cattle. We focused on wolf-cattle conflict mitigation, as US Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services (USDA WS) reports most wolf-livestock conflicts in the United States involve cattle. • We examined the USDA WS Nonlethal Initiative, which indicated a growing shift toward nonlethal wolf management. We found nonlethal methods, such as range riding, harassment, deterrents, and electric fencing showed promise, but their use varied geographically. • Nonlethal livestock protection methods may effectively reduce conflicts while addressing the needs of ranchers, conservationists, and animal rights advocates. They deserve more significant investment and research, beginning with the USDA WS. • We developed a toolkit for ranchers and rangeland managers interested in nonlethal livestock protection, which offers information and resources for implementing conflict mitigation techniques.