Urban bird diversity conservation plan based on the MaxEnt model and InVEST model: A case study of Jinan, China

• Dual-model integration precisely identifies bird hotspots and gaps in Jinan. • Nature reserves and bird priority conservation areas in Jinan differ greatly. • Bird protection efficiency varies between wetland-type and forest-type reserves. Due to long-standing disturbance by human activities, urban natural habitats have been seriously degraded, and biodiversity is under serious threat. Scientific evaluation of the conservation efficiency of protected areas within cities and identification of biodiversity conservation hotspots and conservation vacancy areas are of great significance to the sustainable development of urbanization. In this study, we collected bird data by field investigation in Jinan City in September of each year from 2020 to 2022 and supplemented the survey data with the online database. We used the MaxEnt and InVEST models to calculate the bird diversity and habitat quality hotspots, respectively, and compared them with the boundaries of protected areas. The results showed that there were 14 orders, 35 families, 53 genera, and 66 species of birds that participated in the MaxEnt model of this study. Land cover, soil, and mean diurnal range are the main environmental variables affecting bird distribution in Jinan City. The core areas for bird diversity conservation in Jinan City cover an area of 218.86 km 2 , mainly in wetlands (51.24 %) and woodlands (26.50 %). The overlap rate between nature reserves and core areas in Jinan City is only 20.73 %, leaving serious protection gaps, which are the key areas to be protected in the future. Finally, we provide suggestions for the nature reserve system optimization and ecological protection. This study improves the accuracy of identifying bird conservation priority areas and conservation vacancy areas in Jinan City, and provides a scientific basis for the protection and effective management of urban biodiversity.