Opportunities and challenges in harnessing the immunomodulatory potential of bacterial extracellular vesicles as vaccine candidates

Bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) are considered an efficient platform for vaccine development due to their robust immunomodulatory potential and ability to deliver antigens in their native structure. This review explores the potential of BEVs in infection control, highlighting their role in modulating host immune responses and their applications as immunization candidates. It covers BEV biogenesis, functionality, and the environmental cues influencing BEV production. Furthermore, the interaction of BEVs with immune and non-immune cells is discussed, detailing the mechanisms by which they enhance antigen presentation, induce immunological memory, and alter immune tolerance. The immune dynamics, influencing factors, and regulatory processes are thoroughly examined through insights from studies on T and B cell subsets. This comprehensive overview proposes the potential of harnessing BEVs as effective vaccine contenders in combating infectious diseases while identifying the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead in this field.