Psychological Interiority and Supernatural Agency in <i>Örvar-Odds saga</i> and <i>Hamlet</i>

The present article examines a late-medieval recension of Örvar-Odds saga, an Old Icelandic work narrating the heroic exploits of a Norwegian viking named Oddr. I focus on two passages in this recension—which do not appear in earlier versions of the saga—and on their contributions to the narrative. One of these contributions, I argue, is to grant Oddr a psychological interior: the capacity to harbor hidden thoughts and feelings, which emerge into view on rare occasions and steer Oddr's behavior in otherwise inexplicable directions. The second contribution that I will address is the introduction of an enigmatic, likely diabolical, character named Rauðgrani, whom the text tentatively identifies with the pagan god Óðinn. These two features of the interpolated passages are closely, but ambiguously, intertwined. In particular, the text raises unresolved questions about whether, or to what degree, Rauðgrani is responsible for activating and maliciously steering the psychological processes that underlie Oddr's behavior.This ambiguous entanglement of psychological interiority, on the one hand, with diabolical influence, on the other, in the late-medieval recension of the saga bears striking similarities to specific features of Shakespeare's Hamlet, which I will highlight over the course of the essay. The reasons for this comparison are twofold. First, the aspects of Hamlet that parallel Örvar-Odds saga are lucidly described in existing scholarship on the play. I therefore intend to use these features and this scholarship to establish a frame of reference for my interpretation of Örvar-Odds saga. With this aim in mind, I discuss Hamlet before analyzing Örvar-Odds saga, even though it is the saga, not the play, that forms the focus of the present article. Second, the similarities that I will identify between Örvar-Odds saga and Hamlet are worth examination, and demand explanation, in their own right. I will not complete the task of explaining these similarities in the course of the essay, but I will conclude by offering a preliminary explanatory account.Two of the most compelling, and widely discussed, aspects of Shakespeare's Hamlet are the mysterious psychology of the protagonist and the ambiguous identity of the Ghost. The first of these two features is essential to the coherence of the play. The plot of Hamlet borrows key components from earlier versions of the Hamlet legend, decontextualizing these elements and stripping them of their original coherence. In Saxo Grammaticus's twelfth-century rendition and in Belleforest's sixteenth-century adaptation of the narrative, Hamlet is still a boy when his father is killed. In these versions of the story, the assassination is widely known, and the murderer is therefore aware that Hamlet is likely to seek revenge upon reaching adulthood.1 In order to avoid being killed himself, Hamlet must feign insanity, thereby giving the impression that he is unfit to avenge his father. Among the elements that Shakespeare's Hamlet shares with its forerunners are Hamlet's delayed revenge and his efforts to appear mad. However, these plot elements lack clear motivation in Hamlet. In the play, Hamlet is not too young to exact revenge, so he has no reason to delay doing so. Furthermore, his father is killed secretly, and Hamlet only learns of the murder during his private conversation with the Ghost. As a result, the killer does not realize that Hamlet is aware of his crime, and Hamlet has no need to hide behind the guise of insanity.2These conspicuous wrinkles in the logic of the plot demand reading strategies that attribute Hamlet's enigmatic behavior to the hidden workings of his psyche.3 A longstanding critical tradition has devoted itself to identifying the forces in Hamlet's mind or in his character that cause him to behave as he does, with proposals ranging from repressed Oedipal guilt to a stifling excess of existential awareness.4 The validity of this tradition does not rest on the accuracy of any given explanation or “diagnosis” of Hamlet's behavior. What is crucial, rather, is that by positing an unseen world of thoughts and emotions behind Hamlet's actions, audiences are able to imbue the narrative with a coherence that it otherwise lacks. Shakespeare, furthermore, encourages this approach by placing conflicting interpretations of Hamlet's motives and madness in the mouths of his characters, including Hamlet himself.5 Margreta de Grazia has recently critiqued the tradition of interpreting Hamlet in light of the protagonist's psychological interior; she argues that the drama is, instead, devoted primarily to socioeconomic themes.6 However, while de Grazia's socioeconomic readings are compelling, they do not exclude psychological interpretations, and they do not satisfactorily resolve the problems of coherence posed by Hamlet's behavior.7 Hamlet's psychological complexity, therefore, remains vital to the logic of the play.Apart from the protagonist's puzzling behavior, Hamlet gives audiences another major crux to contemplate: the identity of the Ghost. Although Hamlet was written several decades after “the Church of England had explicitly rejected the Roman Catholic conception of Purgatory and the practices that had developed around it,”8 the text hints in various ways that the Ghost is a soul from Purgatory.9 Other clues in the play,10 however, suggest that the Ghost may actually be “a devil in disguise maneuvering to get Hamlet's soul—and, while he was about it, promoting the false Romish doctrine of purgatory, a thing that Protestants supposed devils constantly to do.”11 Robert West, Hilaire Kallendorf, and Stephen Greenblatt that Shakespeare's of the Ghost is and of these of the Ghost as a from Purgatory or as a devil in disguise the of its with Hamlet and of its over Hamlet's Hamlet's first with the Ghost in the processes that will his behavior over the course of the These processes and the they Hamlet and most of the major to their the Ghost is, in a devil in it and this even though psychological forces are the of his behavior, Hamlet is the of a is therefore the responsible for giving the narrative its on the hand, the Ghost is the soul of Hamlet's father him from Hamlet's psychological has a of in his behavior and the of the the Ghost in a of these interpretations the that I will that a late-medieval recension of Örvar-Odds saga a ambiguous between psychological and As I interpolated passages in this text Oddr's psychological while a character to the Rauðgrani, is as Óðinn. I will that on or not Rauðgrani is, in he may be responsible for activating the psychological forces behind Oddr's for revenge a as is the in Hamlet, this recension of Örvar-Odds saga to the psychological processes the protagonist's behavior while the that a being these processes in saga in or from the second of the an only a decades and a from the will focus on the to which I will the However, in order to the of this the it is first to a and of the narrative in the protagonist of the saga, is a viking from his a that he will for and that he will the he Oddr's over the course of his on the of with and Oddr forms but one by his in by his Oddr a in the and the of he an a a and as a for his he and the he to and as the does not Oddr's into a narrative a degree, the of Oddr's a but the of the saga does not appear to upon or to these the between the of Oddr's and the of his is a is the saga no clear for Oddr to his and the of his he to on what will to be his Oddr his that he to to his to but not to be with the of his in order to However, after his to he to for no gives his a of his which in and he the that to him and one of his before he and his to their Oddr must be about it the that about so The in this that and as is which any of or in the present bears this is no reason to that Oddr to as he this Oddr of a on the must be that the of the saga, the not that Oddr she that a named was the be the cause of Oddr's Oddr by and the but he its on the by Oddr's the to Oddr it with his and a I in the the between Oddr's and his in is this is his heroic exploits do not about his Oddr for and the cause of his is which him to the and to the that the forces of are in this but from the the these forces not in the of Oddr's or him on a his of Oddr's narrative to a of and Oddr's the narrative on what has These features from the coherence of recension of the saga a narrative by Oddr a psychological which several of Oddr's to one another and to his of the text the by by and between the characters, the of the that it shares with of the interpolated into on Oddr's for revenge is responsible for Oddr's in an that shares with In after from the of the Oddr only two to These are and any in the narrative. In on the hand, Oddr on Oddr to a of his own I will that Oddr's to his to with his the of his him to to in the of his psychological forces are what Oddr to his for to his over an of and to to his in which the psychological to Oddr is by between Oddr's to These the impression that hidden forces behind Oddr's for Oddr the during his first conversation with Rauðgrani, a mysterious character only in the recension I will discuss in a of my Rauðgrani to Oddr's with his two and to Oddr the of their Rauðgrani to this be what Oddr is in my mind that I to by the this conversation an has and Oddr his first two to and In the Oddr has his in of a viking a and a Oddr the has during this so it as a when Oddr Rauðgrani that he to the murder of emotions that and Oddr that Oddr to this when he that the to in my Oddr's the that he or she has to thoughts that Oddr has the impression that a hidden Oddr's mind, which is to thoughts and emotions that may his behavior in his for revenge by a with he in a the saga Oddr on a viking his of them and to for had by Oddr from first the text to be that Oddr his after only a of must however, of the Oddr from Oddr's first conversation with Rauðgrani which he his to is after Oddr's from and his with to after is therefore to that Oddr has delayed his for during of the that the The saga does not Oddr his on does it any that him to his The of any to for Oddr's behavior that he is, by psychological forces that for an to to the psychological processes Oddr's behavior, his for revenge as an that he to Oddr Rauðgrani that he to Rauðgrani him from doing so. that was to an and that he is therefore that is for Oddr in Oddr is to and Oddr his to with him to to do and after their on the Oddr first this to he does not his but what Rauðgrani has him about must that he to he that an with will him to this therefore, the is to the of Oddr's for it and he by and his in Although Oddr she first to of Oddr's and she his and these Oddr's to to England to the of his to the of the narrative, the saga Oddr's as an what it he to it to an after on his for Oddr his for the first in the narrative, Oddr a their has to Oddr in his Oddr of his to do any to the and in the Oddr his and they be a for to be to Oddr this the that The Oddr's to his it was the most thing had a on him as Oddr that he to a a my this the and Oddr to when Oddr Rauðgrani that he to for Rauðgrani that that to get to the it was for him and to the of Oddr's for In doing it Oddr's behavior to psychological A of emotions to over Oddr. his during his to and in the that for his thoughts to the had upon was to the of his in the with for the this the first major to an The of that from in Oddr's to the and they do not in any Oddr's of him to his for However, the saga to that the in and that it its over Oddr an in the of the the of the interpolated Oddr learns that “a named has the of a for he a his so that it was this one about his or he had Oddr's is and he his to must be that the of Oddr's most with before to Oddr the of when the as “a a his so that it was the to identify as in Furthermore, after from of his first two with in and in of Oddr him and of a behind the of a in the in the he has a and to exact from that “a on the of be that has the to the when “the of the of Oddr it him as that about this before on his the however, what is that Oddr to identify as the of an conception of the this narrative, I that the between what Oddr and what he to is to the impression that he of mind, in which he his of identity from him to his for revenge his to the of his in the with before identity is explicitly and as a result, the of Oddr's is Oddr to and a of that they and he Oddr to a but Oddr and to is over his and Oddr that this was to with too and to in the Oddr's to in that he has his for However, when Oddr's is killed during the Oddr into a for it to him was another the of and his In Oddr has his by of and this the first of emotions gives to the his and Oddr from on a to do with after which he to his with of and of to Oddr. the Oddr the for he was to realize that or as he was be being as as a as a this the to a and the saga with that is between and The with the of Oddr's which “a and the of two in a the of Oddr's to of Oddr's with only but this on in its after the of the the world of the narrative, between Oddr's with and his to no between the of these two that Oddr's is the of his with As in it is Oddr and while he is his to with his to be by I that in Oddr to and the after of his and after given of he to that while Oddr the of his he must be about it the that about so in my I that in this Oddr's that the will to when he to about it he is not any to In the of however, Oddr is that remains for him in and that he to his that in the narrative, when psychological forces Oddr his by his to remains for a it to in the saga to a narrative Oddr's him he one of his own is killed in the a second of a of and that him on two occasions to his for his gives to of his to psychological to the recension of the saga a narrative in the mind of the these to over the course of Oddr's to one another and they his In these the forces Oddr's behavior coherence to the of Örvar-Odds saga in the that Hamlet's coherence in Shakespeare's from its on Oddr's psychological another that from is its of a character to the narrative. is Rauðgrani, is with the god and he an ambiguous over Oddr. Rauðgrani with Oddr on two first before the with and after In Rauðgrani Oddr from but key him to do during their first Rauðgrani Oddr that is for him in and during their second Rauðgrani Oddr Oddr to the that Rauðgrani has and on Rauðgrani when Oddr and his was to be he does not the after she is which the around when was any but he was a for giving it was and it he them his from doing and after one of Oddr's in of Rauðgrani before The was as this as any that he his own though when it to giving he was the of As as is they and Rauðgrani and that he was likely the the but to identifying Rauðgrani as in the it is these be the one hand, has that to when establish as However, on of saga that to Örvar-Odds saga, most is with and the does not to these elements on when the from it is this a of from of the in the saga, or of the Rauðgrani as his mysterious into and from the when Oddr is in a Rauðgrani him and him by they before Oddr's with in the Rauðgrani and Oddr and what had of However, the that Rauðgrani around when was any him a for with a of as may be of an of that with must be that the recension is ambiguous with to of the saga is of Shakespeare's of identifying the Ghost in Hamlet with of is the with the Ghost in Hamlet, Rauðgrani the workings of the protagonist's psychological but the of this remains to the that their first Rauðgrani Oddr to him and his and to the of their Rauðgrani to this be what In to this Oddr for the first that the of in my Rauðgrani Oddr from this but I that may be to the the saga, Oddr on the or of Rauðgrani is, to be with the god he must be aware of Oddr's and he must realize that Oddr will he is not to Rauðgrani his with the is with a offering an that when Rauðgrani Oddr to from he to the Furthermore, the of the the that Rauðgrani around when was any he was a for giving it was and it he them and from doing and that to Oddr is of that his is to not to do not that Rauðgrani is responsible for Oddr's with Oddr's to Rauðgrani, is in my mind that I to that this their first I do however, that Rauðgrani may intend to Oddr's and him to upon this is he it not only by Oddr to from as that Oddr will the course of but by that Oddr in order to during their first Rauðgrani Oddr that is for him in thereby Oddr to to the during his second conversation with Rauðgrani his own to with in the In this he it for Oddr to which in the of Oddr's in the that the that is about by Oddr's including his own as Rauðgrani, for Oddr to to his As audiences may Shakespeare's which to be a soul from as “a devil to Hamlet into in the “the of the to the of and was “a of the on the the Rauðgrani is and is a Rauðgrani may Oddr into his for the of or in order to false of the pagan by Oddr to his However, the saga does not the to these it does not the that is to identity with Hamlet, the recension of Örvar-Odds saga to and coherence from the psychological of its but the it raises the ambiguous that a being the psychological processes the protagonist's ways in which two and an Icelandic the psychological and forces in their is worth Örvar-Odds saga and Hamlet the similarities that they In particular, given that these two of one any be which the and and which the specific I One is the during of these to the of the task of a from diabolical, or task was to psychological in several The of of its from the that of being by the devil and of and As when a to be by or The of in was one reason it was to to the from the as as the and the from the and the In the of was to in its own on an to this the of in be on the of rather, on which was itself in forms of on and to the of to the of to the of practices which on to their thoughts and feelings, to a to their interiority, and to of their as the of in which it for and the of Örvar-Odds saga to in their between psychological and the ambiguous of As Hamlet explicitly into the of this is not in Örvar-Odds saga, its to the narrative be described in the The two interpolated passages in the recension of the saga attribute key aspects of Oddr's behavior to processes which a psychological as I over the course of my The the that bears pagan diabolical on these The ambiguous of this I the of these the of in late-medieval and the of the of Örvar-Odds saga, a that is in Icelandic as one of the for the The of the in in an from a first in the In this the protagonist while about an with pagan The text to the the protagonist's and to it from the world of the narrative, in which however, the text that the protagonist's in the of and on Örvar-Odds saga raises the that a into the protagonist's psychological in a from an of the with his reasons that will it is to that this in the narrative, from and after an to upon a in a as is that he will to the he to and to from in his the but by the not to the he gives of and what he while he was from the he was and was that The as and to with him into the the and after the he in in including one was the and he that this was his and his the in had to to Oddr on a a of is that that the of his or will the of and by of that will be able to but Oddr it so that it him by or as in by of his to Oddr. however, to do the instead, he Oddr with his A between the in and the in Although the from the which they on other, the that are with and his emerge gives Oddr's of with in a that will in is a pagan this in the narrative, will a which is for are it but for are not by their for the for my and I it to that my into are to a the by his to by into the and I and it as a of that the and the are my and gives the of that he in the to his it and thereby the to the of the and the text that they and his had a was named after the in the narrating his to the that these the of impression is however, when that the and the of which he during his with the into as of his order to the of these features of and their to the of Örvar-Odds saga, I on of several from examines that the of these to about the they in the pagan and the with One of these is in which elements of the are into the In the by is by as of the pagan diabolical as and with of the and of the to these between of and a of the to from Icelandic an of with of and for the of the A that is in which in are by frame in In the that this is to the by and from the pagan In doing they of pagan into but a of is by a in narrative by the that this remains in a a however, the that the one of a of an pagan but this narrative frame when the that the and the he is are the of The in a of narrative only to this and first it that is in to the I from One identify he to a is and the of These in an narrative which is from the of the the of the the text that the and the which during his into this the narrative that the text into two narrative however, that while the the which has in this from the in an In particular, while the text does, establish narrative that to to the between these is not in one of the text a of preliminary hints the of from the and into or not these as they are being when the and the are my it clear that the text has this not narrating his he gives of to in the course of he in and in The to this that the of which gives to in to the of in of these that the will to in the by a of is that that the of his or will the of and by of that will be able to In this that will the of and it with him into it will to of when is given the by with of the of that are in to remains that these will of the between and after the text has this of does it as a of in my that the and the are my a a of the and the narrative the text the posed by the pagan in to the the focus of of with features of the As has an which between the and the In the narrative, aspects of pagan are by a pagan character in of and in to the aspects of pagan to the Oddr must be “the pagan may his in the and is of with pagan these I for to into as that from the pagan to into the I that the of and the of which of his as to the of these into the of aspects of pagan into the The reason the text the of in a of is in order to for and to avoid about to this in the between and to the between and the of from the into the is to specific the of this Old Icelandic in which of emerge into which to from before the “a to the has and which was no be to the in as the in the between and a to during the when and be it is in of to I that the of Örvar-Odds saga and an of the in the of the of of of the pagan in a from the world of a the raises of a diabolical, pagan in a on the hidden workings of Oddr's to the I the ambiguous which the recension of Örvar-Odds saga between Rauðgrani, on the one hand, and the protagonist's psychological on the other, developed to a in Icelandic and to late-medieval the of is the of into the that for the similarities I between Örvar-Odds saga and Hamlet.