Climate-smart agronomic practices and their appraisal among smallholder sorghum farmers in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo wetlands

• Sorghum farming in wetlands is predominantly driven by women in eastern D.R. Congo. • Twenty-two CSA practices are being used with varying adoption rates and drivers. • Eight CSA practices significantly improved sorghum grain yields. • Strong extension services are essential in optimizing CSA effectiveness in sorghum farming in South-Kivu. Climate change is a major threat to food security and poverty alleviation in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) adoption by smallholder farmers will significantly contribute to food security in the region, and particularly in South-Kivu, in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). This study specifically aims at identifying CSA practices in use and factors driving their adoption among sorghum farmers and assessing their efficiency in improving sorghum yield under smallholder farming in South-Kivu. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 475 randomly selected smallholder sorghum farmers across wetlands in South-Kivu. Results showed a significant diversity in socio-demographic profiles of sorghum farmers, with a strong women involvement across wetlands (64 %). A total of 22 CSA practices were identified, with varying adoption rates and drivers. Of these CSA practices, 13 were appraised by farmers as effective in improving sorghum yield though analytical results showed that only 8 CSA practices, namely tolerant varieties, Zaï pits, mulching, strategic intercropping, crop rotation and diversification, liming, and organic manure, actually improved sorghum grain yields. Sorghum yield was highest in the lowland agro-ecological zone (AEZ1) compared to mid-altitude (AEZ2) and high-altitude (AEZ3) zones. CSA practices appraised as effective recorded an average grain yield of 750 kg ha -1 , while less effective ones had ∼560 kg ha -1 . Since sorghum farming is predominantly a female-driven activity, socioeconomic constraints—such as limited access to land, reliance on family labor, and a focus on subsistence rather than market-oriented farming (except in AEZ1)—hinder sorghum ability to substantially improve their family livelihoods. Extension services should be strengthened to empower farmers in implementing CSA practices and to optimize their effectiveness in improving sorghum yields under short-, medium-, and long-term climate variability.