Banking digitalization in Spain: How branch closures and digital barriers reshape financial inclusion

This paper examines the impact of banking digitalization in Spain, focusing on the consequences of branch closures and digital barriers for financial inclusion. Using panel data from the Survey on Equipment and Use of Information and Communication Technologies in Households (2017–2021), a logit model with random effects is estimated to analyse the determinants of e-banking adoption. The findings reveal that a lower density of bank branches per 1000 inhabitants significantly increases the propensity to use e-banking. However, digital financial inclusion remains uneven, with age, digital skills, gender, and geographic location playing critical roles in adoption patterns. While the COVID-19 pandemic accelerated e-banking uptake, structural inequalities persist, particularly among older adults and rural populations. Additionally, despite rising e-banking adoption, engagement with advanced digital financial services (e.g., stock trading, insurance, loans) remains limited, suggesting that digital financial literacy gaps continue to hinder full participation in digital banking. These findings highlight the need for targeted financial education programs, improved digital infrastructure, and hybrid banking models that ensure accessibility for vulnerable populations.