Beyond Snakes: Exploring Zootoxins in Invertebrates and Lower Vertebrates

This review explores the diversity, biochemical mechanisms, and toxicological effects of venoms and toxins secreted by lower vertebrates and invertebrates, emphasizing their ecological roles and potential therapeutic applications. While snake venoms dominate toxicology research, ancient Ayurvedic texts have documented the medicinal uses of toxins from other animals in formulations like Agadas. This study examines the relevance of Jangam Visha (animate poison) in modern toxicology, highlighting envenomation cases in rural communities, where traditional household remedies often precede hospital visits. The review discusses neurotoxins like batrachotoxin, hemolytic toxins such as tetralysin, and insect-derived compounds like cantharidin and mastoparan. Additionally, species such as blister beetles (Mylabris spp.), scorpions (Hottentotta spp.), and wasps (Vespula spp.) are explored for their toxic components and therapeutic potential. The study also addresses ongoing challenges in toxin detection, neutralization, and antidote development. By bridging historical wisdom with contemporary scientific advancements, this review offers valuable insights for forensic, ecological, and biomedical research.