Two- and three-dimensional electron imaging of beam-sensitive specimens

Radiation damage is the main factor that determines the spatial resolution of TEM and STEM images of beam-sensitive specimens, its influence being well represented by a dose-limited resolution (DLR). In this review, DLR is defined and evaluated for both thin and thick samples, for all common imaging modes, and for electron-accelerating voltages up to 3 MV. Damage mechanisms are discussed (including beam heating and electrostatic charge accumulation) with an emphasis on recently published work. Experimental methods for reducing beam damage are identified and future lines of investigation are suggested.