Resource Wealth, Defence Spending, and Environmental Outcomes in Nigeria: A Fourier ARDL Approach

Abstract Environmental degradation remains challenging for resource-rich nations, where the interplay between economic activities, institutional factors, and security measures influences ecological outcomes. Military spending, a necessary component of national security, has been theorized to mitigate or exacerbate environmental harm. However, empirical evidence for a resource-rich country heavily plagued by resource-related conflicts, such as Nigeria, remains limited. This study addresses this gap by examining the relationship between military spending and environmental degradation in Nigeria between 1990 and 2021. The study incorporates key economic and institutional variables such as growth, inflation, energy consumption, urbanization, trade openness, and institutional quality. Using the Fourier ARDL approach, the findings reveal that military spending raises Nigeria’s short- and long-term carbon footprint. A 1% increase in military expenditure results in a 0.046% rise in carbon footprint in the short run and a 0.062% rise in the long run, both statistically significant at the 1% level. These results confirm the treadmill of destruction theory, which links military activities to environmental damage. The study also uncovers evidence of Nigeria’s U-shaped environmental Brundtland curve and critical insights into the environmental impacts of military expenditure and guidance for balancing national security priorities with sustainable development goals.