Advances in clinical neurorestorative treatments of Parkinson's disease

Increasing dopamine levels using oral levodopa administration has been the gold standard for treating Parkinson's disease (PD), but motor complications that occur with the progression of PD seriously affect patient quality of life. Neurorestorative treatments have provided new possibilities for PD therapies. This review summarizes the recent clinical progress in several aspects of neurorestorative strategies: cell therapy, bioengineering and tissue engineering therapy, pharmacological therapy, neurostimulation/neuromodulation, and brain–computer interfaces. However, progress has mainly been related to exploratory experimental results, and more evidence is needed to further verify the safety and efficacy of these neurorestorative treatments in PD.