Literate Merchants in Southeast China and Overseas, c. 800–1100

Abstract This essay examines a variety of Chinese and Japanese textual sources which demonstrate an advanced level of literacy among long-distance merchants in China’s southeast from the ninth to twelfth centuries. I argue that such a tendency reflects members of socially prominent families engaging in commerce, as well as aspirations for the progeny of merchant families to attain greater status and upward social mobility. From the late-Tang onward, both groups sought success through civil service examinations, and could turn to commerce when such goals went unrealized. Participation in high culture as exemplified through literary ability also allowed merchants to associate with influential figures both within China and in various states throughout maritime Asia. This essay will demonstrate how merchants were able to successfully use such abilities as a means to cultivate relationships with trade partners, as well as to take on roles in both diplomacy and in government overseas.