Tactics and Techniques of Information Operations: Gaps in US Response to Counter Malign Influence

The modern information environment has transformed the dynamics of international conflict and politics. A byproduct of the capabilities offered by ubiquitous hyperconnectivity is continuous efforts by state and non-state actors to shape, manipulate, distort, or exploit information to influence public perception. These operations can deliberately disrupt social cohesion or undermine the stability and security of governments and societies. A thorough understanding of modern information threats is necessary to maintain the rules-based international order. Information threats (e.g., campaigns spreading false health information, exacerbation of domestic social issues, attacks on national reputation) aim to sow distrust and discord to gain a competitive advantage. Over the past two decades, US government agencies have been forced to modify outdated policies to counter information threats, often with mixed results. Despite recent academic frameworks and policy efforts to address information threats, gaps remain in addressing those that cross authorities, disciplines, and boundaries by their nature. This survey systematizes the tactics and techniques used in the conduct of information operations. We then present case studies to elucidate gaps and align the features of information operations against current US counter malign influence policies.