Sustainable mobility with renewable hydrogen: a framework for refueling station design and optimisation using liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs)

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs) are key to long-term decarbonisation strategies. However, their widespread adoption hinges on the availability of hydrogen refuelling stations and the ability to lower the at-the-pump price of hydrogen. This study conducts a detailed techno-economic analysis of a hydrogen refuelling station that features on-site production via water electrolysis, storage, and dispensing infrastructure. Using a least-cost optimisation model, the total annualised cost (TAC) is minimised while meeting mass and heat flow constraints. The system is fully electrified, relying entirely on electricity for all processes, including heating for the liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC) system. The analysis explores three scenarios: variations in electricity sources, differences in renewable energy pricing, and the integration of various LOHCs. Results demonstrate that a grid-connected hydrogen refuelling system employing LOHCs provides a competitive production cost and a higher capacity factor. Intermittency impacts system design, increasing capital costs to ensure optimal sizing. Among LOHCs, N-ethylcarbazole is identified as particularly effective, offering resilience and efficiency under variable conditions. Applying this model in Canberra, Australia, the system achieves hydrogen dispensation costs of under A$8/kg_H2, showcasing its potential for scalable, cost-effective hydrogen refuelling infrastructure.