Characterizing Installation- and Run-time Compatibility Issues in Android Benign Apps and Malware

The Android ecosystem has experienced rapid growth, resulting in a diverse range of platforms and devices. This expansion has also brought about compatibility issues that negatively impact user experiences and hinder app development productivity. Existing relevant studies are focused on and limited to the “static” sense of those issues (in terms of potentialities and proneness), while only addressing compatibility issues that possibly occur during app executions. In this article, we present an extensive and longitudinal study on app compatibility issues that are disparate from yet complementary to prior studies, characterizing the incompatibilities based on actual , exercised observations and evidence at both installation and run-time. With a dataset of 74,545 benign apps and 56,919 malicious apps over a span of 12 years (2010 through 2021) and 10 Android versions, we extensively examine the prevalence and symptoms/effects and causes of, as well as the contributing factors to, installation-time and run-time compatibility issues. Our study reveals 12 major novel findings regarding Android app incompatibilities. First (Findings 1, 2), installation-time incompatibilities persisted significantly over the 12 years, even more so in malware than benign apps. Second (Findings 7, 8), run-time compatibility issues were also seen persistently over time but only on specific Android platforms (such as API 26,27, etc.) and much less by malware than benign apps. Third (Findings 5, 6, 11, 12), there is a significant (moderate/stronger) correlation between an app’s specified minSdkVersion and its incompatibilities (over all symptoms and/or with respect to one of its dominating symptom), with stronger correlations seen in malware than in benign apps, for both installation-time and run-time incompatibilities. Similar observations hold (although with much stronger correlation in absolute terms) when considering, instead of the minSdkVersion itself, the gap between the app’s minSdkVersion and the SDK API level of the platform the app is installed to or runs on. Last (Findings 3, 4, 9, 10), installation-time incompatibilities are primarily caused by the utilization of architecture-incompatible native libraries within apps, while run-time incompatibilities are mainly attributed to API changes during the evolution of the Android SDK; the symptoms of run-time failures seen by malware are much more diverse than by benign apps. In addition to these insights, we provide practical recommendations for both app developers and end users on how to effectively address compatibility issues in Android apps, as well as how to devise effective defenses against malware from the compatibility perspectives.