Hide and seek in time and space: Spatiotemporal segregation between snow leopard and its prey in Northern Pakistan

Temporal niche-partitioning is a key strategy for prey to avoid predators and for predators to successfully coexist sympatrically. However, little is known about the temporal and spatial dynamics of snow leopards with key prey species. We investigated the spring daily activity patterns and spatial density distributions of snow leopard ( Panthera uncia ), Himalayan ibex ( Capra ibex sibirica ), and domestic yak ( Bos grunniens ) to unravel the spatiotemporal behavior within their shared alpine habitat in Northern Pakistan using trail cameras data. The results indicated that snow leopards exhibited a bimodal activity pattern, with peaks around midnight and dawn. In contrast, the ibex displayed a predominantly diurnal pattern, starting at dawn and minimally overlapping with the snow leopard. Attended yaks showed a uniform diurnal activity pattern under human protection, while unattended yaks exhibited irregular activity across day and night, suggesting higher vulnerability to predation. Spatial density analysis revealed notable overlaps between species pairs, particularly unattended yaks and snow leopards, highlighting the influence of spatial dynamics on predator-prey interactions. The clear off-phased and contrasting pattern of activity between snow leopard and ibex in our study showed temporal partitioning in spring and indicates that unattended yak may be a more heavily predated species than previously thought. This study provides the first comparative analysis of temporal activity patterns between a key predator and wild and domestic prey in Northern Pakistan. This research broadens our understanding of animal behavior through the lens of spatiotemporal interactions and provides insights into the complex dynamics between predator and prey in the challenging alpine landscape. Our findings emphasize the importance of livestock guarding to mitigate depredation and highlight the complexities of predator-prey interactions in both time and space, along with the resulting behavioral adaptations. • Camera trap study reveals niche partitioning between snow leopards, Himalayan ibex, and yaks in Khunjerab National Park. • Bimodal nocturnal snow leopards and strictly diurnal ibex display strong temporal segregation. • Unattended yaks have irregular activity, increasing predation risk, while attended yaks follow human-controlled schedules. • Livestock guarding is key to reducing predation and informs snow leopard conservation strategies in alpine ecosystems.