Different angles on the same phenomenon: Clientelism through calculation, moral obligation, and habitus

This paper presents and analyses three dominant approaches that shape contemporary research on clientelism: the economic exchange approach, where all involved actors (clients, patrons, or brokers) rationally assess gains and losses; the moral economy perspective, emphasizing moral obligation and reciprocity; and the sociocultural conception grounded in the idea of clientelist habitus. Research following one of these theoretical positions often treats the others as rivals, leading to methodological and normative divisions. This paper argues that the very nature of clientelism, embodied in informal delayed exchange, allows for the integration of these theoretical perspectives. We argue that its architecture comprises interests and strategies, as well as affects, dispositions, and habits. We acknowledge the instrumentalist perspective?s assumption that individuals or groups engaging in clientelist exchanges are aware of their interests, capable of weighing inputs and outcomes and considering alternatives. Simultaneously, we recognize the shared view of normative and sociocultural approaches that transactions do not occur in a vacuum or a purely economic calculus but within a community imposing specific obligations and expectations, thus ensuring the stability and longevity of clientelist relationships. Finally, we advocate for a critical and reflective integration of these approaches.