Unlocking agricultural mechanisation potential in Indonesia: Barriers, drivers, and pathways for sustainable agri-food systems

Agricultural mechanisation is crucial for achieving Sustainable Development Goals by increasing productivity, food quality, resource efficiency, and climate change mitigation. However, the current uptake suggests significant disparities in mechanisation adoption among smallholder farmers across developing countries. Recognising the importance of agricultural mechanisation for SDGs, scholars have identified factors influencing the farm, local, and regional adoption rates and the need to improve sustainable mechanisation. Nevertheless, a critical gap remains in understanding the dynamic interplay between current and future mechanisation pathways, rapid technological advancements, and evolving socioeconomic and agroecological factors. Clarifying supply and demand dynamics for sustainable agricultural mechanisation is crucial for agri-food value chains. Using Indonesia as a case study, this study aims to assess the country's development of agricultural mechanisation and systematically review the literature on mechanisation practices (drivers, barriers, and impacts) on sustainable agri-food systems. With Indonesia's diverse agroclimatic conditions, farmland endowments, land use change to non-agriculture purposes, high population density, and the dominance of smallholder farmers, learnings from this study apply to other developing countries contexts. This study included three stages. First, Indonesia's agricultural mechanisation development was analysed by reviewing data and documents from the government and relevant institutions. It discussed development, regional disparities, and current levels of agricultural mechanisation. Second, guided by the PRISMA framework, a systematic literature review was used to analyse drivers, barriers, and impacts of agricultural mechanisation adoption. Third, the results from previous stages were used to develop a novel framework for sustainable agricultural mechanisation development in Indonesia, considering theories like the food system framework, theory of change of mechanisation, and innovation ecosystem. The study reveals Indonesia's low mechanisation level, significant regional disparities, and opportunities to improve policy effectiveness. Various barriers to mechanisation adoption are also identified, including individual and institutional factors and agroecological conditions. Overall, the study highlights the importance of optimising the multi-stakeholder roles in agricultural mechanisation value chains and developing inclusive access to sustainable agricultural mechanisation for smallholder farmers. This study offers a crucial roadmap for empowering smallholder farmers to adopt agricultural mechanisation for a more productive and sustainable future. The novel framework offers a way to achieve inclusive access to this transformative technology. This study also highlights the need for future studies to explore the intricate interplay of demand and supply within the agricultural mechanisation landscape. • A novel framework of sustainable agricultural mechanisation development was constructed. • Rice production systems in Indonesia were the most mechanised along its value chain. • Disparities in agricultural mechanisation adoption existed across Indonesia. • The development of context-specific strategies for promoting agricultural mechanisation is essential. • A holistic approach among stakeholders is vital for inclusive and sustainable agricultural mechanisation.