From China to Malaysia: Origins, Transnational Connectivity, Localization of Guan Gong Belief

Abstract In Malaysia, Guan Gong belief is widespread in temples, associations, restaurants, homes, and clan shrines within the Chinese community. Initially, Chinese migrants brought their ancestral homeland’s original Guan Gong belief and ritual traditions. The early transnational connections of Guan Gong belief included the transmission of incense and offerings and the flow of financial aid from practitioners back to China. These two aspects of transnational connections jointly facilitated the continuity and development of Guan Gong worship while also expressing an orientation towards China. The localization of Guan Gong belief in Malaysia exhibits distinctive cultural characteristics, including organizational types, geographical distribution patterns, trends in the establishment of Guan Gong temples, the evolution of Guan Gong godhood, the operational models of these temples, changes in worship rituals, and the diversity of auxiliary deities associated with Guan Gong temples. Guan Gong belief remains firmly rooted in its cultural subjectivity despite these cultural adaptations and variations. This research offers insights into the globalization of Chinese religious practices and their role in maintaining cultural subjectivity in Malaysia.