Phytochemical profile and bioactive properties of sage ( <i>Salvia fruticosa</i> ) and thyme ( <i>Thymus vulgaris</i> ) extracts

We examined the phytochemical content, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticholinergic, antidiabetic, and antiglaucoma properties of ethanol and water extracts from Salvia fruticosa (SF) and Thymus vulgaris (TV). Extracts were analyzed using four antioxidant assays, while the enzyme inhibition was tested against α-amylase, acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and human carbonic anhydrase II (hCA II). Antimicrobial activity was evaluated against pan-resistant bacterial strains. LC-MS/MS identified rosmarinic acid as the major compound (27.61 and 34.35 mg/L in TV and SF, respectively). Ethanolic extracts had higher phenolic content (181.0 ± 7.86 and 107.0 ± 5.78 µg GAE/mg for SF and TV, respectively). SF showed stronger metal-reducing capacity, while TV had superior radical scavenging ability, judging by the IC50 values (13.68 ± 1.18 μg/mL), defined as the concentration that reduces 50% of the enzyme activity. The highest inhibition was observed for hCA II (SF ethanolic extract, IC50 14.51 ± 4.07 μg/mL), AChE (SF aqueous extract, IC50 16.51 ± 3.77 μg/mL), and BChE (TV aqueous extract, IC50 10.60 ± 4.93 μg/mL). SF ethanolic extract inhibited the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis (11 mm at 60 μg/mL). These findings highlight SF and TV as potential sources of natural antioxidants, enzyme inhibitors, and antimicrobials for pharmaceutical and food formulations.