Anti-German and anti-Austrian printed text propaganda in the Russian empire at the beginning of World War I

The purpose of the study is to identify and analyze the main themes of anti-German and anti-Austrian printed text propaganda in the Russian Empire at the beginning of World War I, as well as to determine its ideological objectives, content, and methods of influencing public opinion. The research methodology is based on the principles of historicism, objectivity, systemic analysis, social approaches, general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, and specialized historical methods such as problem-chronological and comparative-historical approaches. The scientific novelty lies in the study’s focus on the specific themes of domestic printed text propaganda in the Russian Empire during the early period of World War I, taking into account the specificity of the audience, which was relatively narrow due to a low literacy rate. Conclusions. At the beginning of World War I, anti-German and anti-Austrian printed text propaganda was presented in press publications and individual propaganda brochures. Due to the relatively narrow audience of the press, socially relatable examples were often used to create the image of the enemy, such as accounts of the mistreatment of Russian tourists in Germany or the execution of an official, Sokolov, who had dutifully performed his responsibilities. Brochures targeting a broader audience emphasized crimes against civilians in general, including looting, murder, and the burning of towns and villages. To reinforce belief in victory and establish moral superiority over the enemy, materials were regularly published about low morale in the enemy's army, disillusionment with the war, instances of panic, and loss of resilience during direct engagements. A separate direction of anti-German propaganda included publications dedicated to Kaiser Wilhelm II, who personified German militarism and expansionism. Anti-German narratives significantly outweighed anti-Austrian ones, as Germany was positioned as the instigator of the war and the main adversary.