The longitudinal contribution of working memory and visuomotor integration to early and developing handwriting fluency

Acquiring fluent handwriting in the first school years is crucial for academic achievement as attentional resources become available for more complex tasks. Yet, the role of cognitive and motor processes in developing handwriting fluency (as opposed to handwriting products) remains unclear. Therefore, this study investigated the longitudinal effects of working memory and visuomotor integration on handwriting fluency (number of inversions in velocity, pen stops, and pen lifts) in 364 children in their first year of handwriting tuition ( M age = 7.0 years) at three measurement points. We used cross-lagged structural equation models. Results revealed that handwriting fluency becomes independent of working memory early in development. Further, handwriting fluency predicted visuomotor integration skills, while visuomotor integration did not predict handwriting fluency. These findings imply that handwriting becomes independent early, and yields benefits for visuomotor integration, highlighting the relevance of early handwriting practice. In our study on early handwriting development, we found that a child's previous handwriting fluency (i.e., pen movement fluency) strongly predicts their current handwriting fluency. While factors like working memory and visuomotor integration are linked to handwriting fluency, they do not necessarily contribute to its improvement over time. This highlights the importance of consistent handwriting practice and educational interventions to enhance handwriting fluency at the beginning of school. Moreover, fostering handwriting fluency can also potentially payback for developing fundamental motor skills (i.e., visuomotor integration). • Handwriting fluency improves fast in first grade. • Handwriting fluency becomes independent of working memory early in development. • Early handwriting fluency predicts the development of visuomotor integration.