Wing kinematics measurement and aerodynamics of hovering mosquitoes <i>Aedes togoi</i>

The aerodynamic mechanisms underlying mosquito flight have long intrigued researchers but are still insufficiently understood. In this study, we measured for the first time the wing kinematics and morphological data of hovering mosquitoes Aedes togoi, a species with a larger body size and lower wingbeat frequency compared to previous studies, using high-speed camera techniques. The aerodynamic forces and flows generated by the wing were numerically simulated. Our findings indicate that the mosquito produces a small lift peak at the beginning and end of each half-stroke, with a larger lift peak in the middle phase. The kinematic-fluid-aerodynamic link is established, and the aerodynamic force production mechanisms of mosquitoes Aedes togoi different from other mosquito species are revealed. The difference lies in the middle stroke phase, where the aerodynamic forces are generated by the delayed stall mechanism in conjunction with the fast pitch-up mechanism. Furthermore, the power consumption of these mosquitoes is dominated by aerodynamic power, with a mass-specific power of approximately 28.9 W/kg, comparable to that of other mosquito species. These insights deepen our understanding of mosquito flight mechanics and behavior, while also offering valuable guidance for the design of bio-inspired flapping-wing vehicles with small stroke amplitudes.