Recent developments and research needs in turbulence modeling of hypersonic flows

Hypersonic flow conditions pose exceptional challenges for Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) turbulence modeling. Critical phenomena include compressibility effects, shock/turbulent boundary layer interactions, turbulence–chemistry interaction in thermo-chemical non-equilibrium, and ablation-induced surface roughness and blowing effects. This comprehensive review synthesizes recent developments in adapting turbulence models to hypersonic applications, examining approaches ranging from empirical modifications to physics-based reformulations and novel data-driven methodologies. We provide a systematic evaluation of current RANS-based turbulence modeling capabilities, comparing eddy viscosity and Reynolds stress transport formulations in their ability to predict engineering quantities of interest such as separation characteristics and wall heat transfer. Our analysis encompasses the latest experimental and direct numerical simulation datasets for validation, specifically addressing two- and three-dimensional equilibrium turbulent boundary layers and shock/turbulent boundary layer interactions across both smooth and rough surfaces. Key multi-physics considerations including catalysis and ablation phenomena along with the integration of conjugate heat transfer into a RANS solver for efficient design of a thermal protection system are also discussed. We conclude by identifying the critical gaps in the available validation databases and limitations of the existing turbulence models and suggest potential areas for future research to improve the fidelity of turbulence modeling in the hypersonic regime.