Relations Between Paternal Child‐Rearing and Child Inhibited Temperament Across Infancy and Toddlerhood

Child inhibited temperament is influenced by parenting behaviors, and vice versa. Fathers remain underrepresented in studies examining relations between parenting and temperament. The current study focused on fathers, using a three-point longitudinal design. Father-child dyads (n = 116; 56.9% Male; 88.7% White) participated in laboratory assessments at child ages 1, 2, and 3 years. Children participated in observational tasks designed to measure inhibited temperament, and fathers self-reported parenting behaviors and rated their child's temperament. Path models testing concurrent and longitudinal relations revealed that paternal nurturance, restrictiveness, and encouragement of independence were associated with observed inhibited temperament in infancy, but not with father-rated inhibited temperament. Early observed child inhibited temperament at age 1 year predicted greater levels of paternal encouragement of independence at age 2 years. Findings demonstrated evidence for both father-directed and child-directed effects, suggesting fathers and children influence each other's behavior over time. Overall, this study supports continued focus on fathers' parenting and provides insight into the nuanced impact of fathering on child temperament development.