Paradoxes of heterostructured materials

Abstract Heterostructured materials (HSMs) represent a groundbreaking advancement in materials science, achieving unprecedented combinations of strength and ductility that challenge traditional paradigms. This review explores the state of the art, focusing on foundational concepts such as the Hall–Petch relationship and dislocation dynamics, and correlates these principles with the unique properties of HSMs. The mechanisms behind hetero-deformation-induced strengthening and work hardening are examined in depth, highlighting various types of HSMs and their superior performance. This review critically discusses paradoxes in the field, including the strength–ductility trade-off, the bulk improvement of properties through heterogeneity, challenges in scalability, enhanced performance at cryogenic temperatures, and a high cost-benefit relationship. Future perspectives on HSMs are also outlined, emphasizing emerging trends and potential industrial applications. By integrating foundational concepts with cutting-edge research, this paper provides a comprehensive overview and outlook on the field of HSMs. Graphical abstract