Toxic Effects of Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) Methane (BPF) on the Development and Reproduction of Chironomus tentans

Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl) methane (BPF), as a bisphenolic compound, has toxic effects on organisms such as endocrine disruption and immobilization of growth and development. This study evaluated the effect concentrations of BPF on <i>Chironomus tentans</i> and investigated the impact of BPF exposure at various sub-lethal concentrations on the growth, development, and reproductive capacity of different instars of <i>C. tentans</i>. The results demonstrated that exposure at concentrations of 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 4.0 mg·L^-1 delayed pupation, inhibited the development of imaginal discs, and caused an initial rise followed by a decline in the expression levels of genes related to larval development (<i>ecr</i>, <i>usp</i>, <i>e74</i>). Additionally, exposure at concentrations of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mg·L^-1 led to fluctuations in the expression levels of genes related to adult development and reproduction (<i>ecr</i>, <i>kr-h1</i>, <i>foxo</i>, <i>inr</i>, <i>pdk</i>, <i>akt</i>, and <i>vg</i>) in both female and male adults, with varying degrees of effect. Furthermore, BPF exposure inhibited male fertility, causing significant damage to the gonadal tissues, though it did not affect the final hatching of eggs. These findings indicate that BPF exhibits developmental and reproductive toxicity in <i>C. tentans</i>, with 2.0 mg·L^-1 identified as the lowest effective concentration at which BPF affects pupation in midges.