Looking beyond students' exploration and learning strategies: The role of test-taking effort in complex problem-solving

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of test-taking effort in knowledge acquisition via problem exploration behaviour used in complex problem-solving (CPS) environments. The sample consisted of undergraduate students just starting their university studies ( n = 1748). MicroDYN-based tasks with different levels of complexity were administered via the eDia online platform. Students' exploration behaviour was coded based on the VOTAT (vary-one-thing-at-a-time) strategy, and latent class analysis was used to identify students' behavioural and learning profiles. We identified four profiles: rapid learners, non-performers, proficient explorers and ineffective learners. Students' test-taking effort was measured based on the time they spent on the tasks. Results suggest a strong relation between VOTAT strategy use and test-taking effort. Rapid learners and proficient explorers displayed the greatest test-taking effort, followed by ineffective learners and non-performers. The results provide a new interpretation of previous analyses of the knowledge acquisition phase in CPS. • Four latent exploration profiles are empirically distinguished at university level. • Sufficient time and effort must be invested into solving problems to perform well. • Number of interactions is more important for good performance than time on task. • There is a strong relation between VOTAT strategy use and test-taking effort. • Test-taking effort varies substantially between classes with problem complexity.