Reexamination of the Usage and Perception of ‘Improper rituals(淫祀)’ in Goryeo dynasty

Although improper rituals(淫祀) defined in Confucian classics as “rituals that deviate from the status of the ritual performer”, the term held diverse meanings in Goryeo society. This diversity stemmed from the concept of improper rituals being individually defined based on contemporary circumstances and ritual perception. Choi Seung-ro(崔承⽼)'s definition of improper rituals emerged as part of his critique of early Goryeo national rituals, aiming to establish proper ritual system. Viewing rituals as acts of gratitude and return, he took a negative stance towards rituals conducted with secular aspirations. Rituals in mountain and Taoist rites, which sought blessings from divine efficacy, were classified as improper rituals by him. In the 12th and 13th centuries, improper rituals were perceived by various officials as including ‘Rituals presided over by shamans’, ‘Messy shamanic rituals’, ‘Rituals conducted by unskilled shamans’, and ‘Shamanic rituals worshipping ineffective deities’. The criticized aspects of these rituals varied －ranging from the act itself to the ritual performer and the deities involvedyet they all shared a common connection to shamanistic beliefs. Unlike Choi Seung-ro, who viewed improper rituals within the framework of state rites, officials of the 12th and 13th centuries applied the term primarily to shamanic rituals conducted among the populace. This likely reflected concerns about preventing shamans from deceiving the people, indirect suppression of state-supported shamanic rituals, and efforts to check local gentry. By the late Goryeo period, structural influences such as the introduction and acceptance of Neo-Confucianism(朱子學), as well as recommendations from the Ming(明), led to a broader institutional recognition of improper rituals. Acknowledgment of rituals were assessed based on the accomplishments of the deities involved, and any rituals not officially recognized, not registered in the ritual canon(祀典), were classified as improper rituals. Additionally, the category of improper rituals expanded to include “rituals that deviate from the status of the ritual performer”, returning to its scriptural origins. Moreover, pre-existing views of shamanic rituals as improper were further compounded by the rise of the Neo-Confucian movement of anti-heresy discourses(闢異端). These diverse perceptions of improper rituals from earlier periods converged in the 14th century and led to the Joseon dynasty.