Mongol Perspectives on Foreign Relations reflected in Diplomatic Documents

Chinggis Khan, who unified the Mongolian steppe and established the Great Mongol Ulus, launched conquests against the Jin dynasty of northern China and the Khwarazm in Central Asia, relying on the Mongol's formidable military power. In the early stages of the wars against the Jin dynasty and Khwarazm, historical records do not indicate that the Mongols initiated these wars based on ideological justifications for conquest. However, during the Mongols' westward campaigns, as they conquered the ancient cities of the Islamic world dominated by religious worldviews, Chinggis Khan began asserting his divine authority. The concept of the Mongol ruler as the sovereign by the decrees of Heaven first appeared in these diplomatic documents, becoming a significant formula in later correspondence. The idea of the Mongol ruler as the universal sovereign emerged for the first time in a decree sent during the conquest of Nishapur in 1221. This concept was subsequently established as an essential motif in Mongol diplomatic correspondence. The divine authority of Chinggis Khan, derived from Möngke Tengri (Eternal Heaven), expanded beyond the Mongolian steppe and parts of Eurasia to take on the characteristics of an omnipotent being. This divine authority of the Mongol deity became formalized during the conquest of the Islamic world, where the notion of a supreme deity was already well-established. Meanwhile, the Mongols used the term “一家”(one family) in diplomatic documents sent to certain East Asian polities. This expression is found in documents sent by Ögödei to Goryeo and by Qubilai to Japan. However, this term does not appear in diplomatic documents sent to Western powers. The concept of “one family” reflects the characteristics of Mongolian society, where kinship relationships played a central role, and its archetypal roots can be traced to the sworn brotherhood practices of the Mongolian steppe. This demonstrates the Mongols' flexible approach to establishing external relations. Through diplomatic documents, the Mongols adopted appropriate expressions that aligned with the worldview and culture of the recipient states and emphasized ideologies tailored to each specific audience. Furthermore, the ideas highlighted through interactions with conquered regions evolved to become part of the ideological framework of Mongol world domination.