Analysis of off-grid fast charging stations with photovoltaics, wind turbines, and battery energy storage systems along highways for electric vehicles

Fast-charging stations play a crucial role in the transition to electric vehicles, particularly those located along highways that are expected to replace conventional gas stations. However, these charging stations require significant amounts of electricity due to the high-power demand of the chargers. In some cases, grid availability may be limited or non-existent. This study examines the impact of various capacities of renewable energy sources (RES) and battery energy storage systems (BESS) on charging time and environmental footprint. The simulations indicate that there must be a trade-off between charging time, environmental footprint, and energy rejection, depending on the priorities set by the investor.