Critique as a means of <i>Jiaohua</i> (Cultivation): insights from Confucianism

From a Confucian perspective, critique serves as a tool for jiaohua (cultivation), encompassing not only the transmission of knowledge but also the cultivation of morality. This article adopts theoretical and empirical approaches to explore the Confucian understanding of critique. Theoretically, critique in Confucianism is not merely a challenge directed at external individuals or society; rather, it is viewed as a personal moral and social responsibility. Empirically, this article draws on fieldwork conducted in Confucian schools to demonstrate how students, teachers, and parents employ critique as a corrective tool in educational practice. Confucian critique challenges the monolithic framework of Euro-American critical traditions, offering a pathway of ‘multiple modernities’ to global higher education while addressing the pressing need for a more equitable and diverse knowledge production system.