A Comparison of the Islamophobic Experiences of the Female Convert and Immigrant Muslims in America

This study compares the Islamophobic experiences of female converts and immigrants and their descendants in New York. It argues that Islamophobia is primarily manifested in the form of pervasive everyday racism that is levied at both female converts and immigrants alike, largely in the form of subtle nuances in their everyday interactions with non-Muslims. The study will illustrate that despite some notable differences, the experience of female converts and immigrants—and even the experience of hijabis and non-hijabis from both groups—with everyday racism is remarkably similar. This is largely because when a white American woman converts to Islam—a religion that is perceived as external to everything that America stands for—more often than not, both her whiteness and her Americanness are tarnished. Thus, she tends to be perceived as not-quite-white and not fully American anymore, which is precisely why she is subjected to most of the subtle everyday forms of Islamophobia that female immigrants experience. These include racist comments and jokes, talking to hijabis using a demeaning tone, and non-verbal nuances, such as staring at hijabis or dismissing them. The study contends that since gender issues have long played a pivotal role in the construction of otherness between Islam and the West, this seems to lead to an almost universal experience with everyday racism for Muslim women—who are identified as such through the hijab or otherwise—regardless of whether they are converts or immigrants, and irrespective of their actual or perceived racial background.