Carbon-based nanomaterials: interactions with cells, brain therapies, and neural sensing

Abstract Carbon nanomaterials (CNMs) are characterized by their extensive surface area and extraordinary electronic, thermal, and chemical properties, offering an innovative potential for biomedical applications. The physicochemical properties of CNMs can be fine-tuned through chemical functionalization to design the bio-nano interface, allowing for controlled biocompatibility or specific bioactivity. This versatility offers a transformative approach to addressing the inherent limitations of conventional brain therapies, which frequently demonstrate low efficacy and significant adverse effects. This review delves into recent advances in understanding the intricate interactions between carbon nanostructures and cellular systems, highlighting their activity in brain therapy and neuronal sensing. We provide a comprehensive analysis of key nanostructures, including few-layer graphene (FLG), graphene oxide (GO), graphene quantum dots (GQD), single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT and MWCNT), carbon nanohorns (CNH), carbon nanodiamonds (CNDs), and fullerenes (C 60 ). Their unique atomic configurations and surface modifications are examined, revealing the underlying mechanisms that drive their biomedical applications. This review highlights how a deep understanding of the interactions between CNMs and cells can catalyze innovative neurotherapeutic solutions. By leveraging their unique properties, CNMs address critical challenges such as crossing the blood–brain barrier, improving therapeutic accuracy, and minimizing side effects. These advances have the potential to significantly improve the treatment outcomes of brain disorders, paving the way for a new era of targeted and effective neurological interventions.