Between human and AI influencers: parasocial relationships, credibility, and social capital formation in a collectivist market: a study of TikTok users in the Middle East

Abstract In an era where social media influencers shape consumer attitudes and behaviors, the emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) influencers challenges traditional notions of authenticity and trust. This study explores whether AI influencers can cultivate parasocial relationships (PSRs) and credibility perceptions comparable to their human counterparts, and how these relationships translate into social capital within a culturally rich, collectivist setting. Drawing on Parasocial Interaction Theory, Source Credibility Theory, and Social Capital Theory, we examine TikTok users in Egypt and Jordan to determine how influencer type human or AI affects emotional engagement, perceived trustworthiness, and the formation of bonding and bridging social capital. Our findings reveal that AI influencers can indeed establish meaningful emotional bonds and credibility, sometimes outperforming human influencers in generating community cohesion and network expansion. Yet, these pathways differ, as human influencers rely more on narrative depth and cultural resonance to achieve similar outcomes. By integrating recently recommended studies and acknowledging alternative theoretical frameworks such as (S-O-R), we highlight the complexity and cultural specificity of influencer-follower interactions. This research not only advances our theoretical understanding of parasocial ties, credibility, and social capital but also provides actionable insights for marketers, brands, and platform developers. We conclude with methodological recommendations such as ensuring measurement invariance and conducting longitudinal, mixed-method research and emphasize the need to adapt influencer strategies to align with varying cultural orientations and rapidly evolving digital ecosystems.