Where you place the stakes matter: examining the relationship between test-based accountability and shadow education

Accountability is a nearly ubiquitous part of education systems around the world. However, often missing is an explicit discussion on who the stakes of accountability are placed and how directing high stakes to one group relative to another can lead to different outcomes. We provide an important contribution to by demonstrating that where you place the stakes matters. We identify the type of test-based accountability in 45 countries or areas, then, using multi-level modeling examine the relationship between type of test-based accountability and shadow education participation. Our findings suggest participation in shadow education is higher in systems where high stakes are placed on students solely, or with educators, compared to when stakes are placed on educators alone. Results have implications for designing accountability policy and suggest that to reduce the prevalence of shadow education in a country, you need to consider where you place the stakes on the national test.