Population Geographies in China: Future Directions of Travel

As the most populous country in the world for a very long time (Shen 2005) and the second-largest economy in the global context (Danlin and Yaojun 2022), China's rapid pace of economic development and urbanisation since the 1980s has attracted considerable attention (Qi et al. 2021; Li et al. 2023). Indeed, research in population geography by Chinese scholars has a relatively long history that can be traced back to an early foundational paper by one of the most influential Chinese geographers, Hu Huanyong (Hu 1935). In this seminal work, Hu introduced a landmark population density map of China and explained the various factors influencing such distribution (see also Roxby 1925). This research later evolved into the oft-cited concept of the Hu Line, which continues to be one of the most influential and representative demarcation lines in Chinese population geography research (e.g., Qi et al. 2016; Wang et al. 2019; Ding 2022). Since then, Chinese population geography research has arguably had an increasingly profound impact on Chinese and, more recently, international geographical communities (Feng et al. 2017; Zhu et al. 2016). In China, population-related issues are a vital focus in efforts to address serious development challenges, and they have a significant impact on national and regional policymaking (Shi and Liu 2019; Gu et al. 2022). After World War II, China experienced rapid population growth, sparking, sometimes emotive, domestic debates over population control and planning (Thomas 1995; Morrish 1997). In the 1950s, despite some voices advocating the implementation of family planning (one-child) policies to curb the fast-growing population, these arguments were soon politically suppressed (Ma 1989). From the 1950s to the 1970s, influenced by the geographical research from the Soviet Union, the humanities-related aspects of geography in China were considered bourgeois ideology science and were consequently restricted. As a result, Chinese population geography research was also affected by these conditions (see Leeming 1980; Kong 2010). It was not until the 1980s that population geography research re-emerged in mainstream geography in China, albeit as a marginal subdiscipline for many years (Ogden 1998; Zhu et al. 2016). Since the beginning of the 21st century, however, population geography has garnered more attention and progressed as a subdiscipline of Chinese geography (e.g., Hugo 2007). We would assert that the subdiscipline has now become an important and increasingly distinctive field of study within Chinese geography. There is a rapidly growing number of population geographers in China, which is in tandem with an increased societal focus on many population-related issues in China. By the third decade of the 21st century, with the rise of many population challenges, Chinese population geography research is gaining more social and policy significance. Arguably, China is simultaneously grappling with three major population issues: ageing, low fertility rates, and regional population shifts. China has witnessed a dramatic decline in its total population size for the first time in the last 61 years, drawing the attention of media, governors, and scholars to the key mechanisms underpinning China's demographic processes and policy reactions towards such decline at national, regional and local scales (e.g., see Li and Mykhnenko 2018; Hu et al. 2023). Notably, in September 2024, the Chinese government announced a steady push towards implementing a delayed retirement policy, once again bringing population issues into sharp public focus. Population geographers are certain to play a key role in addressing these serious challenges for the Chinese state and society. For instance, the pace and spatial patterns of population ageing in China are influenced by the regional mobility of the older population (see Qin et al. 2024). If population geographers can more accurately understand the flow of older people between regions, it may be possible to provide better predictions of the ageing rates in different areas. We suggest that given the many significant population challenges that China is currently facing or will soon encounter in the future, Chinese population geography is a ripe ‘testing ground’ that will draw increasing global attention from wider international constituencies of geographers. This may provide a rich opportunity for wider and more diverse engagements to advance new theoretical and empirical developments in the field of study. However, due to many longstanding limitations in population data (such as the decennial national census), to date, we argue that the range of topics within Chinese population geography research has remained relatively narrow, although innovative approaches within Chinese population geography are increasingly fruitful (see He et al. 2024). Historically, studies have primarily focused on the spatial distribution and migration patterns of the population, the evolution of populations over time, the factors influencing the spatial distributions and movements of populations, and the regional effects of population distribution and migration in China (Feng et al. 2017). During this period, population geography research in China generally appeared to align more closely with the so-called ‘traditional paradigms’ of Chinese human geography, paying relatively less attention to the heterogeneity of different demographic cohorts and their structural differences. Additionally, studies were often conducted on a larger scale (such as the provincial level), with limited interest in individual-level analysis. Over the last two decades, we would contend that the population geographies of China have been profoundly reconfigured by a more diverse range of processes of change, including urbanisation, gentrification, the changing countryside, student migration and studentification, and the development of new towns. On the whole, it can be asserted that Chinese population geography research has often reflected a systems science approach. This can be exemplified by the Hu Line, which serves as a major demographic boundary in China, and is also regarded as an important natural geographical divide within China (e.g., Wang et al. 2019). The main thinking behind the Hu Line not only focuses on the regional disparities in population density but also represents a comprehensive understanding of the interactions between population, resources, and the environment (e.g., Deng et al. 2022). This holistic perspective is arguably evident in many various aspects of population geography research in China. Since the beginning of this century, Chinese population geography research has also been influenced by Western intellectual trends, with two major aspects standing out. First, under the influence of the ‘cultural turn’ in Western geography since the 1980s, Chinese population geography has also undergone a sociocultural shift (e.g., Chai et al. 2007; Zhu et al. 2014). For instance, there has been growing attention to the social integration of migrants and the construction of social networks (e.g., Liao and Wong 2015; Lin et al. 2021). Second, influenced by the ‘spatial turn’ in Western demography, Chinese research has increasingly emphasised the integration of big data models and spatial analysis techniques in population studies (e.g., Bernard et al. 2019; Gu et al. 2020). Under these influences, the intersection of population geography with other disciplines has become an increasingly prominent trend, and the boundaries between population geography and related fields appear to be increasingly blurred. At the same time, China was the first country to experience a large-scale outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and implemented various stringent travel restrictions to control its spread (see Zhou et al. 2022). These measures likely had significant impacts on and caused shifts in the patterns of interregional population mobility within the country (e.g., Shen 2021). Huge differences have certainly been witnessed in human mobility volumes, types, and probabilities since the outbreak of COVID-19 (see González-Leonardo et al. 2022; Rowe et al. 2023). Due to the spatial features of virus transmission and notable geographical variations in social, economic and cultural conditions and population governance measures, investigation of spatial demographic processes and outcomes has been entrusted with particular responsibility in the post-epidemic era (e.g., Batty 2022). Indeed, the waxing and waning of the pandemic brings many new research questions and interests for population geographers in China. For example, how does the risk of being infected by COVID-19 affect the urban settlement and the well-being of migrants in destination cities? Does choices of migrant groups among neighbouring places present certain geographical relations? How did the pandemic change the fertility intentions of people and the behaviours of older adults? In addition, with the application of theories and techniques from population geography, researchers may reach more place-based implications and solutions for policymakers to improve conditions for well-being in the (post)pandemic context. We suggest that some profound changes in socioeconomic environments in the next few decades may reshape and redirect the direction of travel of future population geography studies in China. First, theoretical constructions foregrounding a spatial context need to go beyond the boundaries of statistical science. Drawing on theoretical frameworks from the wide interdisciplinary contexts of sociology, economics, and human geography may help to deepen understanding of important population topics, as well as more fully guide the application of spatial demographic techniques. Second, in the era of big data, China's population geographies are expected to integrate more interdisciplinary and advanced techniques and demographic models (e.g., deep learning, AI) to produce faster and more analytical computer performance. Lastly, future population geography agendas are likely to give more attention to evaluating and implementing local place-based population policies. By taking into account aggregated macro-level demographic phenomena, including state and local governments, settled residents, sub-national and international migrants, and other key stakeholders, spatial demography is expected to become a more significant aspect in the urban and rural governance of the relations between individual communities and places. Against this dynamic backdrop, this special issue reflects the growing richness of population geography research in China. The special issue is thus organised to demonstrate the breadth and diversity of the field of study and present recent cutting-edge work within Chinese population geography for an international readership. The special issue features seven academic papers that employ quantitative and qualitative methodologies and approaches. The topics under investigation are generally broad, covering key demographic phenomena currently unfolding in China, such as student mobility, older adult migration, and population changes in employment trends. By bringing the progress and future research of population geographies in China to the attention of academia, society, and policymakers, this special issue sheds light on some new methodological innovations and policy implications for broader access to geographically referenced data. The second part of the article systematically reviews and reflects on the seven papers from the special issue, while the third part summarises key contributions of the special issue and offers an outlook on the future of population geography research in China. Internal migration is one of the most important factors in changing spatial distribution patterns (Shen 2013; Qi et al. 2021), and this trend has become even more pronounced in the current context of declining natural population growth rates. China is embroiled in the effects of ‘ageing’ populations (Chen et al. 2021), and the trend of population ageing is expected to continue rising (Qin et al. 2024). This reduces the demographic dividend that has supported China's rapid economic growth since the 1980s and increases the social burden of care for the older population (Kong and Li 2024). Population ageing is, therefore, a pressing core issue which two articles in this special issue address. First, Huang et al. (2025) employ a typological approach to analyse the interprovincial migration of older adults in China. Using household registration and residential information from 5 years prior, the study divides older adults' migration into two stages and identifies five migration patterns: stay, leave late, leave early, return, or move onward. The paper provides fascinating insights into the factors influencing the migration decisions of older adults for each pattern and reveals that the factors influencing older adults' migration decisions differ between the two migration stages. Understanding these different driving mechanisms is crucial for more fully understanding the migration behaviours of China's ageing population across different stages. Second, Kong and Li (2024) also focus on the spatial distribution patterns of older adults in China. They specifically examine the impact of social care provision on the distribution of older adults, highlighting the regional disparities in social care availability and the importance of reducing these differences. The authors develop a particularly interesting indicator system to quantify the levels of social care provision across different regions of China. The findings of this study have significant practical implications, offering valuable policy insights for local governments in China as they address population ageing. By formulating relevant policy measures, governments can provide better social security for the elderly population, making this study highly relevant for the development of ageing-related policies. Subnational and international student mobility is a significant dimension of migration within China, attracting increasing attention from population geographers in recent years (e.g., Gu and Smith 2020; Mulvey 2021; Wang 2022; Kang 2024). Cui et al.'s (2024) paper provides a novel case study of this population movement with a focus on the National College Entrance Examination (gaokao), one of the most influential examinations within China on migration flows, with its roots tracing back to the imperial examination system of the Sui and Tang dynasties. The authors show that as gaokao is administered at the provincial level, differences in test design, organisation, and student quota distribution act as triggers for subsequent high levels of student mobility across China, with from different often to study at from across the regions of China. Cui et al.'s (2024) novel study also focuses on a recent policy as the which to with special and offers an for of regional quota the has regional However, Cui et al. (2024) that the policy in student mobility, to access to They argue that this many the policy to to in major particularly in China's The article by for for across regions and that are more By addressing these the authors to address spatial within and patterns of student The population is a vital demographic and understanding its changing patterns and driving factors is for the changing socioeconomic of population geography in China (e.g., Liu and Shen et al. 2019; Li and 2023). Zhou et al.'s (2024) supported by data, focuses on a distinctive economic in the increasing of has that this decline is a that structural in a as in the War many social and policy From a population geography Zhou et al. (2024) argue that China may be a many show a trend in and are to for the in They suggest that the in employment in China to be a by a of regional development policies and The empirical findings that in a decline in an in impacts local economic by an of the socioeconomic This to a of the between progress and the of the Zhou et al. (2024) while the Hu Line with a in population density between the and regions, employment on the of the Hu Line is an It is that this reflects a shift in the of employment an era of Zhou et al. (2024) that this the importance of population geography with regional economics, from a demographic analysis to a more examination of population phenomena, thus offering significant theoretical and practical implications for the field of study. fertility rates are now a in China and have attracted significant attention from population geographers (e.g., Liu Zhou and 2020; et al. 2022). In recent years, the Chinese government has implemented various measures to to fertility rates, but these to have had limited The low fertility trend in China is related to the family planning policy in the this policy a demographic dividend the and period, it may have to an and decline in fertility 2007; and is one of the regions in China with relatively fertility by the cultural of more For the of family and cultural to have a for and (2024) study how fertility particularly how in the fertility choices of Using a conducted in the of and structural on the and Liu that a impacts the fertility intentions of people in However, the in fertility is by in help from their such as with or show a in fertility and Liu also three and and with and a valuable of fertility intentions in China by as a the suggest a with the in China's and declining in major et al. the role of as an is which may efforts to fertility rates in the authors have that is a key population within China's rapidly (e.g., He Huang and Liu 2022; et al. and changing rural places (e.g., et al. Liu et al. 2023). Indeed, this has increasingly attracted high levels of interest from Chinese population geographers. In this special issue, two articles specifically focus on and Using as an empirical case et al. (2024) paper the of caused by the into two main and how these two groups their and The study that is a very are to be more in their the often with a of security and challenges in these the environment and social environment are to be crucial for in with their the paper as a significant social impact of and for more attention to be given to the In to the caused by gentrification, some have to a in Huang et al. (2025) Using a with and a migrant population, the study provides an case of how social networks within communities often play a role in Huang et al. (2025) that the networks by over the years have to by or their and It is that these social also a of among the By the of spatial Huang et al. (2025) a perspective on and The study the role of social networks in and the importance of in the from urban The of papers in this special issue that population geographies in China are increasingly dynamic and being by a of different processes in some profound the contributions to a and for Chinese population geography from empirical and methodological some across the papers can be to the important of key We to five issues that may be particularly important for future developments in Chinese population geography, and that may more and of theoretical and between population geographers from China and the international context. First, this special issue reflects the growing of different and interests within the geography of the Chinese For instance, despite the of more population geography there is an increasing interdisciplinary diversity within Chinese population geography that insights from broader the focus on the mechanisms behind migration, which older populations, and of urban This growing in the and integration of Chinese population geography with closely related disciplines such as urban and rural sociology, and social, and geography. this and research there is a and growing focus on the so-called affected by processes of urbanisation and rural This often a growing with the effects on older populations and their across various migration and and decisions of urban facing processes such as gentrification, and the fertility and choices of as well as rural influenced by important topics the increasing on more and societal within Chinese population geography, which arguably a more pronounced focus on the sociocultural and spatial challenges that are by various demographic groups within China's rapidly changing socioeconomic Second, to approaches in Chinese population geography, the papers in this special issue a with theoretical thinking among Chinese population geographers. At the same time, the papers also more engagements with theoretical beyond the Chinese context and across the so-called For example, Kong and Li (2024) have reflected on and public from the perspective of the spatial distribution of the older population, particularly the issue of in public provision for different groups and Cui et al.'s (2024) on the other has the of from a population geography perspective Additionally, some articles in this special issue have to the theoretical of gentrification, by the perspective of urban in China et al. and the findings of Zhou et al. (2024) possible to the of the Hu and Liu (2024) have also fertility theories from the perspective of for from China. The theoretical population geography research topics in China are valuable and They a of integration and between Chinese and Western population geography the papers in this special issue also to for more methodological articles in the employ cutting-edge quantitative and valuable insights into some of the key and of different population migration some studies the need for more qualitative to better the and wider sociocultural of residential populations within places. It is particularly to that beyond on and population data, researchers have conducted their empirical to and analyse data (e.g., and Liu 2024). This growing breadth of methodological approaches will for more in the data and analysis at scales to address some of the longstanding data by Chinese population geographers. the papers in this special issue major challenges of China. For example, as China with the serious implications of an ageing society, there is an need for more and of the spatial distribution and mobility of older populations, as well as a understanding of the effects of an ageing on issues such as social care and provision (see Huang et al. Kong and Li important issue is the diversity of and for social mobility, as well as the impact of key factors such as the gaokao system and student migration and patterns in and of China (see Cui et al. 2024). important population challenges in this special issue range from the dramatic effects of the decline of employment and socioeconomic well-being within China, a key issue that is embroiled within the broader of the economy (see Zhou et al. to the impact of on adults and their or of family (see and Liu that may have major for future and the of the Chinese this special issue some of the key that Chinese population geography can and influence policymakers and other in addressing population challenges in the Chinese context. We would argue at the same time, there is a rich opportunity to more fully and academic and practical across international is that this will as a for and methodological development of Chinese population geography and more international and interdisciplinary engagements between population geographers from China and scholars from other The work in this paper was supported by the National of China the and of of of China and the by The authors of The data that the findings of this study are on from the The data are not due to or