China’s Urban–Rural and Trade Inequality in Water Footprint

The economic inequalities impede the equal distribution of water among various household groups, potentially leading to inequal access to this vital resource. By integrating a multi-regional input–output model with household expenditure, we investigate the water footprint (WF) for ten income groups in each of the provinces and evaluate water inequality among regions, households, and expenditure categories comprehensively. Our findings reveal significant disparities in water footprints, with urban households exhibiting nearly three times the WF of rural residents. Wealthier eastern provinces show higher per capita consumption-based WFs compared to the less developed western regions. The interregional trade exacerbates water inequality because water-intensive goods are produced in less developed regions and are being consumed in more developed provinces. This study underscores the importance of targeted policies to address water inequality, achieve sustainable water management, and promote equitable water use in the face of increasing water demand and supply imbalances.