Evolution of patterns of specific land use by free-field photovoltaic power plants in Europe from 2006 to 2022

Abstract Background Land use for the conversion of energy from renewable sources into electrical energy is increasingly competing with cultural landscapes and natural areas. It is anticipated that by 2050, solar energy generation will have increased by a factor of 15, which will result in a considerable expansion of the land area required for photovoltaic (PV) power plants on a global scale. An increase in the efficiency of PV modules and an optimisation of the space usage for PV power plant construction will contribute to a reduction in the expected environmental impact on land use. This study represents an empirical investigation into the European development of specific energy and area-relevant key performance indicators of free-field PV power plants. It employs a comprehensive sample drawn from diverse European geographical locations from different installation years. Methods This study investigated the evolution of various location-independent and location-dependent system parameters over time, using a sample of 107 free-field PV power plants across diverse European regions from 2006 to 2022 related to the fenced area. The investigations concentrated on the land use per installed power, land use per module area, land use per generated electrical energy, generated electrical energy per PV module area, energy density, capacity factor, and power density. The determined data provide the first European average life cycle inventory data, disaggregated by year and location, for environmental life cycle assessment. To facilitate a comparison of the system parameters of PV power plants with those of other renewable energy technologies, a further database was employed, including 89 power plants from the biomass, wind power, geothermal energy, solar thermal energy, and photovoltaic sectors. The selected samples were compiled from this database to compare the area-specific energy yields of both data sources. Results The European trends for free-field PV power plants demonstrate a 60% reduction in specific land use per installed power and land use per generated electrical energy over the study period. In 2022, the median values were 14 m 2 /kW and 0.011 m 2 .a/kWh, respectively. The analysis indicates that three significant technological advances have occurred at approximately 5-year intervals. At the mounting design level, the land use per module area for conventional fixed-tilt row systems decreased by 30%. Overall, the mean land usage of all the considered PV power plants is threefold greater than the module area over the entire study period. Likewise, the results show that the high land usage caused by tracking systems is entirely compensated for by a relatively high energy yield, which presents an opportunity to develop innovative designs for multiple-use systems. A comparison of PV power plants with other renewable energy power plants reveals that solar thermal heat is distinctly superior in terms of the energy yield received per unit area. Conclusions To minimise land use, it is recommended that minimum energy efficiency requirements should be defined for new free-field PV power plants in addition to an optimised mounting design within the fenced area. The high energy yield of tracking systems, which have comparatively large row/pole distances, provides the opportunity for multiple uses of the ground area. Furthermore, the discrepancy in energy yield between northern and southern Europe underscores the need for a more comprehensive European planning strategy with regard to the future location of free-field PV power plants. To realise energy transition in the future, it will also be essential to consider all energy potentials together rather than to focus on isolated and small-scale initiatives. The policy changes require Europe-wide coordination, coupled with tailored national and regional definitions. Integrated spatial and energy planning could be a potential avenue for achieving this challenging aim.