Measuring Restrictive Masculinity: Development and Implementation Within University Students

Restrictive masculinity is a rigid construct of how to define manliness that is associated with several health harms. The current study sought to develop a brief questionnaire to measure restrictive masculinity. The questionnaire items were based on the restrictive masculinity norms defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Development Centre and refined through expert input and focus group sessions. The restrictive masculinity questionnaire was then administered to n = 506 university students via an online survey. Exploratory factor analysis was used to identify the questionnaire’s latent structure, and sociodemographic, behavioral, and mental health predictors of holding restrictive masculinity norms were explored. A twelve-item questionnaire containing two latent constructs (i.e., political/economic sphere and private sphere) and three measured variables had a good model fit (RMSEA [90%CI] = 0.05 [0.04,0.07], CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.96, and SRMR = 0.03). Participants identifying as heterosexual cis-males and reporting illicit substance use were positively associated with restrictive masculinity norms. Although further development is needed, this 12-item questionnaire may be a useful tool to measure restrictive masculinity norms. Early interventions should be considered to reduce the impact of restrictive masculinity on individual and population health.